American Literature

The novel Passing by Nella Larsen explores the issue of race through elegant and brilliant plotting depicting a psychologically touching portrait of arousing extremity in the early American society. Larsen portrayal of the society stuck between desire and reason is captivating and quite sensitive on the issue of racial interaction. With its setting in society that upheld slavery, Passing explores the extreme ends, which in the early American society social construction of a particular race as superior and the other as inferior. The white people had the superiority complex that pushed them to viewing blacks as the other and forced them into inhuman slavery. Larsens Passing ultimately speaks volumes of the aspirations of the blacks in crossing the racial line the society had socially drawn among the races (Larsen, 32).

Through her characterization and setting, Larsen is able to bring out the social construction of race in entertaining and educated format in which race, class distinction, and identity themes are interplayed. The novel highlights Nella Larsen as outstanding African American literary writer and a modernist. The novel connects with historical accounts in American history on racial relations. The novel explores the effects of racial construction on a person on emotional, psychological, and physical level. Clare went on to say, Still, its his own business. If he gets along better by turning.., (Larsen 37). Larsen depicts the theme of racial identity using the two women characters, which represent African American in which one character totally has abandoned her roots for the white culture. This alienation of self connects with negative social values in the society, awakening several aspects of racial status.

The development of racial identity is more amplified among the ethnic minority groups with the resultant manifestations of racism being observed in several social places resulting to stereotypes. Larsen also explores the issue of self worth among the African Americans and how it relates to their evaluation of racial status. One crucial aspect here is discovery of personal identity and appreciation by the social group one belongs. Personality of majority of the minority groups connotes the deep seated bias that characterizes the broad aspect of racial identity. Personality is therefore configured along class, gender, sexuality, and race. Larsen belabours expounding the scintillating relationship that comes afore before a black individual can pass for white (Larsen 29). Through the eyes of Larsen the readers come to terms with a world in which people relate mutually regarding their skin and they also perceive others on their bodies  sensitive society. Therefore, people relive in a society in which each experience is shaped and shaded with major emphasis the peoples skin color. Adoption of a new identity by a black individual, therefore, entails embracing of the white culture despite their African heritage and incorporating American values held by the whites even though segregation persist after grasping the values of the whites.

The novel unravels a dramatic twist to the telling of the reality of the American culture that Larsen depicts where a person received or was denied privileges because of the tone of the skin. Skin color had impact upon the black people who undertook to endure the rite of passage to pass as white though the African heritage innateness remained intact. The perception is derived from the racial diversity that met early relations between the blacks and whites. Being Black was viewed as an obstacle to be endured and was greeted with outright verdict by the white majority in order to place them to their right social status, lifestyle and attitude of the contiguous society  noble savage to those aped the culture of the whites like Clare. The simulation of the book by the adoption of the main character to undergo the passing successfully as white race though not to imply she belonged to that race. This aspect depicts the social construction of the culture of the whites as the mainstream whereas that of the African Americans as the other  quite removed from what the society construct as the ideal (Larsen 49).

Larsen delves deep into history to shore up the various critical concerns that characterized the social divide experienced in the construction of the American society. Discrimination was the undefined code that propped up racial indulgence from either side of both whites and blacks. It may be, Rene dear, it may just be, that, after all, your way may be the wiser and infinitely happier one (Larsen 47). The allegiance of women to their race heralds an unlikely scenario, which is socially constructed, imposing a rather oppressive responsibility to race thus the aspect of escapism. The price for non-allegiance by some of the women resulted to labeling and complete abandonment as well as withdrawing of support for their race. Passing was perceived by the blacks as deserting of ones roots, which resulted to severe repercussions on the one hand. In Johnsons review of Larsens works, the main character in the novel, Irene, exemplifies the case of those caught between being who they are or aping the culture refered as the culture constructed by the society as mainstream. The desperation to belong to the superior race could not be any more deafening in order to enjoy the benefits of crossing the color line (Larsen 62).

Even after the era of slavery, crossing the color line meant great deal of achievement to the individual in gaining illusionary identity diversion. Severe punishment awaited those who tried to cross but failed, receiving brutal beating or even death by lynching because of their race. Although passing has after that been relegated to history, the undying effects sprout just about anywhere. Johnsons book confirms the issue of color to infect the whole of the American society. A critical example thus stated It was, she cried silently, enough to suffer as a woman, as an individual, on ones own account, without having to suffer for the race as well. It was a brutality, and undeserved, (Larsen 98). However, there exists the irony of difficulty in passing for either sides of the racial divide. Larsen (10) says, She was caught between two allegiances, different, yet the same. Herself. Her race. Race Nothing, she imagined, was ever more completely sardonic. The analysis of Larsens works outlines a never-ending struggle to liberate both blacks and whites from their own imperfections hewn in stereotyping of race.

In conclusion, Passing by Nella Larsen is undeniably a masterpiece of psychological plight of African Americans in the American society. The characters clearly depict the manifestation of a society that denies a person acceptance simply because he or she is of different race. That characters live on the fringes of race, traversing or passing is a clear indication of a society of tense racial relations. This presents the mobility of identities covering the whole racial divide and serves to destabilize notions of race and of raced spaces. The American society as Larsen successfully presents it shows the historical racial relations and how many people especially the blacks where treated by the whites in inhumane manner leading to psychological and social bankruptcy.

The Grossmont College Powwow Festival centers on increasing awareness on Native American culture whilst raising funds for the Grossmont College Indian Scholarship fund. The festivities usually run from noon until eleven in the evening and range from gourd dancing to songs by tribal members hailing from as far as Canada. From all its exciting activities, its drum contest is its most popular feature. The Powwow festival is certainly an event anyone could enjoy.

The Powwow Festival is open to the public and is free as it is sponsored by the Barona Band of Kumeyaay Indians, Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians, the Native Americans Council, Grossmont College Extended Opportunity Programs and Services and the Grossmont College Cross-Cultural Studies Department. The college embraces Native American culture through traditional dances and songs, and is a great occasion not only for the staff and students of Grossmont College, but also for the public to take pleasure in viewing activities from time-honored tradition as well as to have a better grasp on such a rich and diverse culture. The Festivals most popular segment is that of the drum contest with the yearly theme of Indians Helping Indians. It was conceptualized in hopes of bringing in more performers to make the event all the more thrilling. With the prize money at stake, around twenty bands attend which means more variety and much more excitement especially when the winners are announced at eleven in the evening.

Grossmont Colleges Powwow festival has a little bit of everything. It maintains a loose and casual atmosphere, is a means for embracing such a rich and diverse culture and has much loved excitement from its drum competition. Aside from bring people together it is the means for which more than two-dozen American Indian students are able to attend the school through its scholarship fund.

The story of Sundiata is a semi-historical account of the founding of the Mali Empire, in it the main protagonist Sundiata was supposedly an individual of great spiritual power who used this power to defeat his foes and unite the people of Mali into a prosperous empire. It is one of the most culturally significant epics (Wright, p. 389), and while it is true that there was an individual by the name of Sundiata who founded the Mali empire the reason why the story of Sundiata or rather the epic of Sundiata is called a semi-historical account is due to the fact that it blends elements of magic and sorcery with historical fact. Several scenes present within the story allude to the special nature of the protagonist from the prophecy of his birth that would supposedly make him the king of Mali (Pasachoff, p. 150), his supposed possession of strange mystical powers that enabled him to defeat his rivals who possessed powers of their own, and finally to the use of special totems that supposedly enabled a person to possess special qualities that made them powerful on the battlefield (Niane, p. 52).

When read closely, the epic of Sundiata can actually come to be interpreted as possessing religious connotations. At the time of its creation the region was undergoing a religious transformation and as such, certain parts of the story when examined closely show the influences of this transformation. The story though originating from a male dominated culture shows how women are an integral part of the life of Sundiata and were among one of the main reasons why he came to be and were behind his rise to power. The most interesting aspect to note is that his sisters were sorceresses. The epic of Sundiata can also be said to be similar to other forms of ancient epics such as those found in Greek literature such as Achilles and Odysseus (Bastian, p. 167). Thus, it must be observed that the connotations of magic, sorcery, prophecy and religion are all found intermingled in the heroic epic of Sundiata.

Religion and Sundiata
Though it may not be explicitly stated in the epic there are actually religious connotations present in the tale. Africa at the time of Sundiata was actually undergoing a period of religious transformation wherein Islam had taken root among its many indigenous groups, collectively referred to as the Mande (D. Conrad). The father of Sundiata, Maghan, was actually an Islamic convert. Through the marriage of Maghan, an Islamic, and Sugalon, a representation of the traditional mysticism of Africa, we see that the combination of the two creates a strong individual who leads the region to greatness. Since Sundiata is an epic that came into being orally, carried through by poems, plays and stories (Jansen p. 131). African beliefs about magic and spirituality are riddled with a rich and deep body of mythology. Stories that can attest to the amazing oral tradition of the Griots (Niane), similar to the one mentioned in the tale of Sundiata, who have shared it orally from young to old alike throughout the many centuries  (Jansen, The Sunjata Epic The Ultimate version, p. 14-16 ).

With oral traditions, sometimes those telling them tend to embellish certain parts which explain why there are instances in the epic wherein Sundiata supposedly annihilated dozens of men with just one sweep of his sword which seems highly unlikely. There are even times when storytellers add and remove parts in order to convey a message that they themselves want to impart. Fakoli, Sundiatas general for example, is routinely missing from text (D. Conrad, Searching for History in the Sunjata Epic The Case of Fakoli, p. 155).

Sundiatas mother perhaps was never hunch backed or ugly nor did she probably possess mystical powers, rather the story teller at the time probably included these qualities to show that the marriage between African mysticism and the religion of Islam could produce greatness. In the end it did since the relationship between the region and Islam did result in several years of prosperity for the region (Jansen, The Sunjata Epic The Ultimate version, p. 14-17). An interesting observation in the story is the portrayal of Sundiatas mother and father the portrayals in themselves also contain significance.

If we assume that the storyteller in this instance was a Griot Islamic convert then the portrayal of Maghan as being handsome and Sogolon as being ugly could come to be interpreted as Maghan representing the greatness of Islam and Sogolon representing the current state of the region that by combining the two, greatness for the entire region could be achieved. Also, evidenced by the death of Sogolon when Sundiata was about to go to war and claim his destiny, that fact could also be interpreted as a dying of the old ways to be replaced by the new.

Importance of women and the intertwined images of sorcery in the epic of Sundiata
Though African society is a male dominated culture the women in the epic of Sundiata played important roles from the start of the epic all the way to the struggle for power and leading to the conclusion which was the victory of Sundiata. It can be said that if it were not for the women in the life of Sundiata he would not have become the lion king of Mali, in fact he wouldnt have even been born at all (Pasachoff, p. 151). As a proof, the epic begins with the future father of Sundiata, Maghan Kon Fatta, sitting under a silk-cotton tree when he is told a prophecy by a hunter who had given him a portion of his kill (Kunene, p. 212).The hunter states that the king will marry an ugly hunch backed woman that will be brought to him by two hunters however it is through that woman that a son will be born to him that will rule over the entire region (Pasachoff, p. 150).

From this and the succeeding events of the hunters being guided by the spirit of the buffalo woman enabling them to kill the rampaging buffalo and their subsequent presentation of the hunch backed woman Sogolon to Maghan it can be seen that it was through the subtle machinations of women in the form of a womans spirit that guided the hunters that lead to the birth of Sundiata (Kunene).

If it was not for the spirit guiding the hunters they would not have been able to kill the buffalo and take Sogolon to Maghan. From this it can be seen that though it was not intentional it was through the kings first wife Sassouma that Sundiata found a reason to walk after many years of crawling on the ground (by fashioning a steel rod for assistance). Sassouma herself could even be said to be one of the primary reasons why Sundiata became what he did for if it was not through her actions of having him exiled then Sundiata probably would not have been able to travel extensively the way he did and learn the skills and wisdom needed to defeat Soumaoro. The last contribution of a woman in the epic of Sundiata is through his sister Nana Triban. It is through her that he learns that Soumaoros totem animal was the cock and by using the animal Sundiata would be able to defeat Soumaoro.

King Soumaoro put ample reliance on his weapon of sorcery, the power of which grew during Sundiatas days in exhile (Kunene, p. 219). Sundiata countered the same with his version of magic, fashioning an arrow with a white cocks spur on the tip which he used to defeat Soumaro, thereby ridding Soumaoro of all his sorcery. Thus from start to finish it can be seen that Sundiatas life even before he was born has been influenced by women and magic, and it is through them that he was able to become the lion king of Mali (Niane).

Though the tale shows the importance of women it does have a hidden meaning regarding women which is not immediately apparent. From the epic it is well known that Sassouma hates Sundiata and wishes him nothing but ill will and death and takes steps to bring this about. Ironically, it is through her that Sundiata actually achieves his goal and becomes the lion king of Mali  (Niane). If it was not for her actions during Sundiatas youth which resulted in his exile he would not have been able to gain the wisdom and achievements needed to make him what he was.

Moreover, it was due to this exile that he was able to be part of the court of Moussa Tounkara who gave him half of the Mema army which enabled him to gather more men to defeat Soumaoro  (Kunene, p. 216-217). It was also through Sassoumas own daughter, Nana Triban, that Sundiata was able to learn the weakness of Soumaoro. From all these events the hidden meaning becomes obvious even if a woman wishes ill will and death upon a man the man, by divine will or right, will still triumph over the woman. Though woman are important in the tale of Sundiata his inadvertent victory over Sassouma without even trying shows that the tale is engulfed in the African concept of male superiority over women.

Similarities with Stories from Greek Mythology
The story of Sundiata actually has similarities to that of two pieces of ancient Greek literature namely that of the Odyssey and Oedipus. While the story of Sundiata may not contain parts wherein he kills his father and marries his mother, a familiar theme in the stories of Sundiata and Oedipus is the importance placed on fate and destiny. In both stories before they were even born their destinies were already prophesized and both fathers believed in the power of prophecy. It is at this point where the similarities in both fathers end since in the case of the father of Sundiata he believed wholeheartedly in the power of prophecy and fate that some things were inevitable and inescapable so much so that he married an ugly woman just to conform to the prophecy of him bearing a son through her (Pasachoff, p. 150-151). The father of Oedipus also believed in the power of prophecy however he believed that destiny could be changed and took steps to ensure that the destiny of Oedipus would not come to pass by leaving him to die on a mountain when he was a baby (Hamilton). It must be noted though that the reason why the father of Sundiata believed wholeheartedly in the prophecy might be because it was mostly positive and having several wives in Africa was normal so much so that having an extra ugly one would not be an inconvenience however in the case of the father of Oedipus it was mostly negative and meant his death. In such a case it is understandable that a person would fight fate even if they believed in the power of it.

In the case of the similarity of Sundiata and Odysseus both protagonists experienced a long journey before they were able to go back to their homes and both were indebted to Kings for helping them when they were lost. In the case of Sundiata it was King Mousa Tunkara the king of Mema who gave him refuge when he was in self imposed exile while in the case of Odysseus it was the King of the Phaeacians that helped him get back home by giving him a ship to get there (Hamilton, p. 202). One other similarity between the two is the use of a bow and arrow to win their own perspective trials. In the case of Odysseus he used a bow to shoot an arrow through 12 rings set in a line during a competition to defeat the suitors who were attempting to court his wife in the belief that he was dead (Hamilton, p. 217). While in the case of Sundiata, it was through the use of an arrow wrapped in the tail feather of a white rooster that enabled him to defeat the sorcerer Sumanguru.

Powwow is a Native American conventional festival. The time of this festival is to get collectively as a community, to commemorate, evoke, converse to the spirits, show gratitude to them, and request them for help. There are several special pieces that construct a powwow a true festival of the Native Americans. The powwow would not be comprehensive without the dancers, the elders, and the drum circles. Grand entry where all dancers and elders appear and walk around the circle is the main constituents of the activities held at a powwow. The chief elder holds the flags and wears a crown out of eagle feathers.

Dances at powwow intended for the spirits to achieve hope, admire the blessings of the spirits to protect the situations of misery in future. The central fraction of the powwow is competition where male and female dancers present their skills of dancing separately offering distinguish types of dances. Usually young dancers start this competition that moves to the oldest dancers in the end. By tradition men dance prior to women. There are two sorts of dance namely the conventional and fancy ones.  Conventional for men comprises the buffalo dance, the sake dance and diverse trot. Fancy dances for women comprise Jingle Dress Dance and Fancy Shawl. The dancers dance clockwise around the ring. The only time someone dances anti-clockwise around the ring is to indicate that something is incorrect within their family unit or their community. (Ellis, 2005)

Drum circles are the second most important constituent of the activities at a powwow festival. There are more than one drum circles for the duration of a powwow. A drum circle is created normally with six to 12 males from the similar family. There are generally fathers, grandfathers, and sons around the drum circle. It comprises of one large drum with everybody pounding out a beat and at least one affiliate of the circle singing. At powwow competitions, the emcee calls for the drum to go along with the competition. Drum means the gadget and the drummers or singers who surround and participate in it. Exclusive of the drum, there would be no powwow. Drummers dedicate their livings to the art, learning it by verbal custom from a senior male family member. Ritual, hard work, and many miles on the powwow highway are fraction of the practice. (Ellis, 2005) Drums are eminent by sound the high tone represents Northern style, and the lower tone Southern.

Powwows differ from area to area, and most pursue either the southern or the Oklahoma style. Particular groups, such as a solo family, a comprehensive family, or a whole community, fund a powwow. The sponsors plan the occasion, organize the facilities and arrange the food and select the main performers.

Contemporary powwow dance types have come to be strongly connected and recognized with sophisticated and illustrative clothing styles.  This focus on the illustration features of dance has led in turn to fastidious substance amplification of the presentation perspective, such as the utilization of grandstands and intense lights. Such visual differences most noticeably detach stomp dance and powwow worlds. For the reason that all those in audience at a stomp dance are anticipated to contribute, there is in point of fact no audience. This also means that street clothes are usual stomp dance dress, even though there are objects of garments, such as a loose-fitting skirt for women and a western hat for men, that indicate full and regular contribution.

The Road by Cormac McCarthy is a father and son story of survival in a post-apocalyptic setting which is captured well in both the movie and the book.  It underscores the boundless magnitude of a fathers love for his son in a world which has become ugly, lackluster, vile and savage.  The nameless characters in the story are a man and a boy, who is his son.  It is a moving story of how they manage to survive obstacles despite having nothing but a cart with some goods, a gun with two bullets, and carrying the fire inside them.  The plot is dreadful as it shows future scenarios which the author sees most possible to take place.  The storys enveloping theme of sadness is passed on to the reader and the viewer as it shows a gray landscape and gloomy milieu all throughout.

It is expected that some parts of the novel would be discarded for the sake of keeping the story within the usual time period of a full-length movie, hence, some details were left out.  In the novel, there was a part of the story where they went to a gasoline station in the hope of finding fuel for their lamp but found none.

What the father did was he gathered all the empty containers of oil which he placed upside down, collected all these drippings in a container which made almost half a gallon which they were able to take with them.  Later on, he was able to use this oil to light their lamp and read to his son before they rested for the night.  These details were omitted in the movie version.

Another part of the book which was removed in the movie was the part where the man was feeling symptoms of desperation because of their situation and he was blaming God for their misfortunes.  In the movie, the worst scenes the man had were those in which he was coughing and crying, but not the way it was presented in the novel.  The bad dreams of the father and his son were also omitted in the movie, which were recurrent throughout the book although the dreams about the mans wife were retained as part of the flashback scenes leading up to the time she left them.   The scenes on the dam, the house the father used to live in, and the flute picked up along the road which the father and son were able to pass through as mentioned by McCarthy were also removed from the movie.

The father and son were also able to find some mushrooms from the forest called morels, which they cooked as part of their meal and ate later on  this part also wasnt included in the movie.  For the most part, the pair only ate canned goods and other preserved goods which they could pick-up from abandoned houses, stores, etc. and adding this part could have made the story more interesting since it would have also shown that the father knows how to look at other sources aside from the salvaged goods they stumble upon for their sustenance.

McCarthy also mentions in his novel of a man who was struck by lightning which the man and the boy come upon.  However, they wont be able to help the man since he was already beyond assistance and was dying, so the boy cried the whole time after this incident.  There was also a house where the man found some dried apples and a concrete tank where there was clean water in the book which meant so much to them because they hadnt eaten for days.  The desperation of finding food was not much felt by the viewer in the film as it is recounted in the book.  The burned train in the woods was also part of the novel.  All of the above scenes were part of the book but were not included in the movie adaptation.    

On the other hand, there were numerous scenes which were part of both the movie and the book.  One of these is the part where the man treated his boy to a Coca Cola in can which he found lodged in an old vending machine in an abandoned grocery store.  The rumbling sound of an earthquake which shocked the boy from his sleep is also another.  The map which they used which was mentioned as one roadmap that had been torn into leaves and merely numbered for reference was one essential guide in both the movie and the novel.  The man and the boy taking a dip by the waterfalls as well as the man going to the ship to find items which they might be able to use was also included in the book and adapted in the film.  

The man used his first bullet on a man who held the boy as hostage, and who unfortunately had his brains splattered all over the boy  this was shown in both film and book versions.  The little boy who saw another boy his age in one of their house rummaging exploits was also presented in both the movie and the book, which illustrated the compassion the young boy had to help the needy.  There was also this house which was being used by the bandits  supposedly cannibals -- in the movie, who kept naked people in the basement.  The naked people were food for this people and this was discovered by the man and his son in one of their so-called hunts, but they were lucky to have escaped an otherwise terrible fate.  Likewise, the part where the man and his son get to find the bunker filled with goods, the old man they help on the road and the bum who almost steals their cart with the goods were all part of both the movie and the book versions.

There were, however, some scenes in the movie which differed from what were written in the novel.  Like the man throwing away picture and ring on the bridge --in the novel the man merely leaves his things on the road.  The book also shows the mans bravery by doing the suturing of his wound from the bow shot.  In the movie, the man used manual staplers to close up his wound, which is surely not the real manner one would deal with a wound.  Furthermore, the book devoted more emphasis to the scenes on the ship (which the man and the boy found) from which the man salvaged a handful of items and returned to numerous times before coming upon the flare gun.  As a whole though, the movie was able to portray the essentials of the plot which was the love between the father and his son.  

Anne Sextons Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is actually an exposition of the weaknesses of women in mid-20th century America and not your usual fairy tale, and this is perhaps the greatest irony demonstrated by the poet. Aside from the title, this literary masterpiece of Sexton is filled with ironic similes and instances of irony all throughout. It is therefore the task of this paper to prove that such use of irony is descriptive of the rather miserable state of women during the time that Sexton was writing the poem.

The Purpose of Sextons Irony in the Poem
Sextons irony in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has but one purpose  to expose the miserable situation that women in mid-20th century America were experiencing during the time of the writing of the poem. Furthermore, various instances of such use of irony similarly portray the many different aspects of the frailty of women.

The Dumbness of the Beautiful. Another instance of the use of irony in Anne Sextons poem is regarding the seemingly beautiful as otherwise actually low or inferior through the mention of the contrasting qualities of Snow White. In stanza 3 where the mirror tells the Queen, but Snow White is fairer than you (Sexton). Being fairer than a Queen is indeed deserves greatness which is greater than royalty itself. However, this very line is followed by a contrasting statement Until that moment Snow White had been no more important than a dust mouse under the bed (Sexton). And as if the dust mouse label is not enough, Sexton goes on to call Snow White the dumb bunny who opened the door and she bit into a poison apple (Sexton). Such use of irony by Sexton in portraying the rather dumbness of women no matter how seemingly beautiful they are is highly indicative either of how she or the society views women in America during the mid-20th century or perhaps it shows the authors idea of the social destiny that women are supposed to fulfill in society. This dumbness is perhaps brought about by the fact that these women live rather mechanistic lives at the time the poem was written.

The Mechanistic Life of Women. Still one more instance of the uncanny use of irony in Sextons Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is the portrayal of women as living purely mechanical lives or rather lives that may have been turned mechanistic through social prejudices directed against women. In the first stanza, Snow White is described as a rather mechanical china-blue doll with eyes that open and shut and that these eyes open to say only good things like Good Day Mama (Sexton). Sexton indeed points out in this line that although Snow White is a lovely virgin (Sexton) and that she is fairer than the Queen (Sexton), she is nothing more than a doll, which is a symbol of a lifeless toy that says only Good Day Mama, which may represent a line of submission to the pressures of society that women should be obedient, should say only something good and should never complain.

Sexton even ironically hints at the eternal nature of such mechanistic life by mentioning in stanza 7 that upon Snow Whites death, its doll eyes shut forever (Sexton). This line simply implies that even death cannot change the machine-like roles of women. Moreover, the use of the pronoun it instead of her finally mechanizes and dehumanizes the feminine role of Snow White, who is actually praised at several instances in the poem where she is called a lovely virgin (Sexton) or someone who is fairer than the Queen (Sexton). This claims to loveliness, fairness and beauty are however the subject of another one of Sextons ironies. Does she really believe women are lovely and fair or is she hinting at their rather inferior physical qualities

The Inferior Physical Qualities of Women. Another theme that Sextons use of irony is trying to portray in her poem is the rather inferior physical qualities of women of her time. After stating that the virgin is a lovely number (Sexton), the poet goes on to say that this virgins cheeks are as fragile as cigarette paper (Sexton). This is indeed not a compliment for the reason that regarding ones cheeks as fragile as cigarette paper, or rolling paper, rather implies that women during the time of Sexton are prone to vices such as smoking, hence their fragile nature. Sexton is pointing out through this particular line that the seeming fragility of virgin women is not because of their natural loveliness as virgins but rather because of their secret vices.

Sexton also indirectly describes womens fragile character and miserable state character as she mentions that a lovely virgins arms and legs are made of Limoges (Sexton). This indeed seems like a rather sensual compliment on women until one realizes what Limoges is. First of all, Limoges is a type of porcelain and porcelain may be beautiful but extremely fragile, and it is precious as antique but only until it breaks. Such is the woman of Sextons time. Second, Limoges is a type of porcelain which was produced from a material that was quarried by the financially-distressed workers of France and that there were no known manufacturers of it during the first time it was made. Such were the women of Sextons time  financially-distressed, powerless and lacking in identity. This powerlessness and lack of identity may also be the reason behind certain secret vices of women during Sextons time.

Sexton, through her poem, also hints at the alcoholism of women when she ironically states that a lovely virgins lips are like Vin du Rhone (Sexton). Vin du Rhone is literally Wine of Rhone and such an ironic simile may seem like another sensual description of women as wine may involve sensuality but such a description is rather an ironic portrayal of the fact that women during Sextons time secretly indulged themselves in alcohol.
Useless Friendships. Still, one more use of irony in Sextons Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is the authors somewhat vague contention that friends are powerless in uplifting the role of women of her time. Although there are in fact seven dwarfs  seven as in many, these seven people cannot even revive Snow White in stanza 7. They desperately do useless acts like undid her bodice and looked for a comb but naturally, it did no good (Sexton). They also do other useless things presumably from superstitions like washed her with wine and rubbed her with butter but naturally, it was to no avail (Sexton). Friends here are not only as small and powerless as exemplified by the dwarf image but also mentally-inferior, superstitious and utterly useless. And even in death, the seven dwarfs could not even bring themselves to bury Snow White (Sexton), which clearly implies that a woman dies helpless in the midst of helpless friends.  No wonder Sexton herself ironically labels the dwarfs as small czars who are nothing but little hot dogs (Sexton), which implies that their kingly appearances are rather deceiving in that they are actually only fit to be eaten.

Furthermore, the dwarves house in stanza 4 is portrayed to be as comfortable as a honeymoon cottagecompletely equipped with seven beds, seven chairs, seven forks and seven chamber pots (Sexton). At first glance, it seems to be a place with several amenities but little does Snow White know that seven beds are intended for individual use by seven people. Everything in the house is therefore a sign of individualism and selfishness among the residents. And how can one exactly benefit from selfish friends who do not even know how to share a chamber pot This is an instance of dramatic irony in Sextons poem where Snow White herself does not know what exactly is going on. This dramatic irony also tells us that such a honeymoon cottage (Sexton) in stanza 4 is ironically the same place where Snow White dies in stanza 7.

A Rather Vicious Circle. Perhaps one of the most obvious ironies in Sextons Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is the fact that Snow White somehow is destined to suffer the same fate as the stepmotherQueen herself. In stanza 2, it is pointed out that the stepmother had a mirror to which she referred (Sexton) and that this mirror somehow ironically points out her beauty to her in the words Queen, you are full fair, tis true (Sexton) but insults and makes her insecure by saying but Snow White is fairer than you (Sexton). As an instrument that rather leaves the reader feeling more insecure, this mirror is a symbol of social pressure directed against women during the time of Sexton. The Queen has actually paid attention to the mirrors insults and because of this, her hatred has eventually brought her to poison her but in the end, the Queen is killed in stanza 8 when she was made to wear red-hot iron shoes and she danced until she was dead (Sexton). In short, the mirror is in fact the ultimate cause of her ruin and death.

Sextons ultimate irony at the end of the poem is that Snow White eventually gets hold of the mirror and sometimes refers to it as women do (Sexton). This irony illustrates a kind of vicious circle as we now find out that Snow White will share the same fate as her wicked stepmother  the fate of the physically insecure who constantly has to listen to the mirror for compliments and criticisms.

Furthermore, another irony involves Snow Whites resurrection at the end of stanza 7, which should have been an enlightening and life-changing experience just like any typical resurrection is. However, the irony is that it is indeed life-changing but in a horribly negative way. In stanza 8, there are three instances of such negative transformation First, Snow White somehow allows the Queen to be invited to her wedding feast but afterwards she must have turned vengeful and allows her to be killed by red-hot iron shoes (Sexton), depicting a rather ironically negative picture of Snow White who is earlier referred to as a lovely virgin (Sexton) Second, Snow White reverts to rolling her china-blue doll eyes open and shut (Sexton), a rather mechanistic way that is thought to have disappeared upon her death and lastly, she turns to her mirror as women do (Sexton). This means that she has succumbed to the same social pressure that once consumed her stepmother and she seems destined to perpetuate it.

Conclusion
Sextons Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is indeed not your usual fairy tale but rather an ironic portrayal of the destiny awaits women during the time of the author. Sextons poem is generously peppered with ironies that focused on the dumbness, mechanistic life, inferior physical qualities, useless friendships and a seemingly uncontrollable destructive fate of women during the mid-20th century America. Overall, Sextons irony in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is a testament to the fact that during that particular period in history, women lived a confusing double life of imagined strength and dominion but actual weakness and submission.

The last few pages of Amulet reveal to the reader the ultimate symbolical significance of the amulet. Just as a typical good luck charm wards off evil, the amulet in Bolaos novel is a metaphor for the resistance against violence  both political and social - that ran rampant during the 1960s in Latin America.

Auxilio Lacouture, the heroine trapped for days in a bathroom at the National Autonomous University of Mexico was equally ensnared in an inundation of memories and dreams. At the end of the book, Auxilio had a vision of fantastic landscapes  where valleys led straight into the abyss (Bolao 180) and where mountain peaks seemed to form a kind of mirror with two sides (Bolao 182). In the midst of this bizarre backdrop, a spectacle appeared of a legion of young people on the march to somewhere (Bolao 181). Bolao described the children of Latin America as advancing like an army toward the abyss and inevitable death. They are depicted as linked not by a common goal, but only by their generosity and courage (Bolao 181). The amulet in this case, was the strength in numbers. This illustration was a seeming analogy of the united front put up by revolutionary students against the incursion of the Mexican Army. The security in numbers inspired them to fear neither persecution nor death. Auxilios dream continued with the outpouring of music. The children sang as they marched, oblivious to their mortality and even quite eager to sacrifice themselves. Auxilio, helpless to stop them, simply listened to their song. As they plunged into nothingness, their song of war and love (Bolao 184) endured, reverberating for others to hear. And that song is our amulet (Bolao 184).

As poetry became Auxilios constant source of strength during her 12-day seclusion, the song became the nations reminder that hostility and oppression can be defeated by generosity and courage. In the end, Bolao demonstrated that the amulet is not so much a warranty of immunity but the driving force that motivates us to action despite the odds.